Whether you're writing your thesis in Manila, Nairobi, London, Jakarta, São Paulo, or Toronto — the fundamentals of research methodology are universal. Our resources are designed to apply across citation styles, university systems, and academic cultures.
The philosophical foundations of rigorous research — ontology, epistemology, validity, ethics — do not change depending on where you study. What changes is the institutional format, the citation style, the ethical review body, and the cultural lens through which your research is interpreted.
Your institution's required citation format does not change the quality of your research — but getting it wrong signals carelessness to every examiner. We cover all six major systems with country-specific guidance.
The research process — from proposal to defense to publication — varies significantly across university systems. Understanding these differences helps you navigate your institution's expectations and interpret research from other contexts.
| Aspect | Philippines (CHED) | United Kingdom (UKRI) | United States (NSF/NIH) | Australia (TEQSA) | Nigeria (NUC) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Doctorate Duration | 3–5 years (coursework + dissertation) | 3–4 years (primarily research) | 4–7 years (coursework + dissertation) | 3–4 years (primarily research) | 3–5 years (coursework + thesis) |
| Proposal Defense | Formal oral defense before a panel; revisions required before data collection | Upgrade/transfer viva at year 1–1.5; less formal in some institutions | Dissertation proposal defense (prospectus); committee approval required | Confirmation of candidature review; varies by institution | Formal panel defense; IRB approval often required simultaneously |
| Citation Default | APA 7th | Harvard or Chicago | APA 7th (social sci) / IEEE/Vancouver (STEM) | Harvard (AGPS variant) | APA 7th increasingly dominant |
| Ethics Review Body | Institutional Ethics Review Committee (IERC) / PHREB | NHS Research Ethics / University Ethics Committee | Institutional Review Board (IRB) | Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) | National Health Research Ethics Committee (NHREC) |
| Thesis Structure | 5 chapters: Introduction, RRL, Methodology, Results, Summary | Flexible; often 6–8 chapters with no fixed structure | 5 chapters standard; three-paper model increasingly common | Flexible; three-paper model common in research-focused programs | 5 chapters standard; closely mirrors US model |
| Final Defense | Oral defense before panel; committee approves revisions | Viva voce — 2–4 hour oral exam with external examiner; outcomes include pass, minor/major corrections, resubmission | Dissertation defense before committee; generally pass with revisions | Oral examination or viva; varies significantly by institution | Oral defense; external examiner assessment; revisions common |
We include examples, formatting guides, and institutional context notes for each of the following countries. Select your country to see region-specific guidance within each module.
Regardless of your country, university system, or discipline — these principles form the inviolable core of defensible scholarly research. Every module on this platform is built around these foundations.
While universal principles apply everywhere, the research tradition you work within shapes how you apply them. Understanding the differences between Anglo-American, Continental European, and Global South traditions makes you a more sophisticated researcher and reviewer.
All modules are written to apply across university systems and countries. Country-specific notes, examples, and formatting guides appear within each lesson where relevant.
Questions from researchers across 12+ countries, answered with precision.
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